A decentralised approach to cyber-physical systems as a service: Managing shared access worldwide through blockchain standards

Ramos Villalon, Juan LuisTorre Cubillo, Luis de laLei, ZhongchengHu, WenshanTadashi Kussaba, HugoLemieux, Victoria2025-04-232025-04-232025-02-18Juan Luis Ramos Villalon, Luis de la Torre, Zhongcheng Lei, Wenshan Hu, Hugo Tadashi Kussaba, Victoria Lemieux, A decentralised approach to cyber-physical systems as a service: Managing shared access worldwide through blockchain standards, Computers in Industry, Volume 167, 2025, 104264, ISSN 0166-3615, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compind.2025.1042640166-3615 | eISSN 1872-6194https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compind.2025.104264https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14468/26490The registered version of this article, first published in “Computers in Industry, vol. 167, 2025", is available online at the publisher's website: Elsevier, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compind.2025.104264 La versión registrada de este artículo, publicado por primera vez en “Computers in Industry, vol. 167, 2025", está disponible en línea en el sitio web del editor: Elsevier, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compind.2025.104264Cyber-physical systems (CPSs) is a general concept that encompasses a wide variety of systems. Depending on their nature, application, and accessibility needs and restrictions, CPSs can differ a lot from each other. This paper proposes a classification of CPSs based on their accessibility needs and restrictions and, more importantly, presents an approach to create a decentralised and worldwide common access management framework for CPSs for non-critical infrastructures that are meant to be shared and accessed remotely (i.e., offered as a service). The presented solution uses a permissionless blockchain, existing fungible tokens, and a combination of smart contracts based on nonfungible token standards/proposals to enable CPS owners to manage secure, flexible access without centralised oversight. In addition, the proposed framework provides built-in mechanisms for: (i) charging for the use of CPSs, (ii) availability calendar configuration, (iii) worldwide visibility, (iv) easy integration with authentication/authorisation methods, and (v) access control flexibility.eninfo:eu-repo/semantics/openAccess33 Ciencias TecnológicasA decentralised approach to cyber-physical systems as a service: Managing shared access worldwide through blockchain standardsartículocyber-physical systemsblockchainaccess controlinternet of thingsdecentralised technologiesaccess managementservices